Nouns: singular and plural

Most countable nouns have both a singular and a plural form, showing the difference between ‘one’ and ‘more than one’.

REGULAR PLURALS
The regular way of changing a noun from singular to plural is to add –s or –es at the end.
Ex:-dog – dogs, chair – chairs, difference – differences, dress – dresses, watch – watches

For nouns ending in –y, you drop the –y and add –ies to form the plural, if the –y follows a consonant.

Ex:-dictionary – dictionaries, opportunity – opportunities

For some nouns ending in –o, you add –es to form the plural, for others you add –s.

Ex:-tomato – tomatoes, potato – potatoes, radio – radios, cello – cellos

IRREGULAR PLURALS
There are also several irregular ways of forming a plural.


1. With seven nouns you change the vowel. They are:
Ex:-man – men
-woman – women
-foot – feet
-goose – geese
-mouse – mice
-tooth – teeth
-louse – lice

2. With a few nouns you change the final –f to –v before adding the –s ending.
They include:

knife – knives
leaf – leaves
wife – wives
half – halves

Some nouns in this group have a regular plural as well: scarfs and scarves, hoofs and hooves. Both possibilities are correct.


3. With three nouns you add –en. They are:

ox – oxen, child – children, brother – brethren (only in the religious sense)


4. A few nouns which have been borrowed from foreign languages have an irregular plural. They include:

stimulus – stimuli, crisis – crises, criterion – criteria, phenomenon – phenomena

Often these nouns have two plurals: they have developed a regular plural but have also kept their original irregular one. In these cases, the regular form is more informal and popular; the irregular form tends to be used by specialists.

Ex:-There are no certain formulas for success. (informal)
-We have to learn all the relevant chemical formulae. (specialist)

5. A few nouns have no plural ending, but you can still use them in a singular or plural way: they include the names of some animals (such as sheep, deer, cod), some nouns expressing quantity (such as ton, p (=pence)), and a few others (such as aircraft, crossroads, kennels, offspring).

Ex:-The sheep was making a noise. The sheep were making a noise.

PLURALS FOR COMPOUND NOUNS
Compound nouns combine two or more words into a single unit. You usually make them plural by adding –s at the end of the word: can–openers, grown–ups. But in a few cases, the first part of the compound takes the –s ending, especially when the compound contains an adverb or preposition.

-runner–up
-runners–up
-passer–by
-passers–by
-man–of–war
-men–of–war

Sometimes, a regular plural form has developed, which is slowly replacing the irregular one.

spoonfuls (also spoonsful)

mother–in–laws (also mothers–in–law)

NOUNS WHICH ARE ONLY SINGULAR

Several nouns are used only in the singular. There are three main types:


1. Proper names – names of particular people, places, times, occasions, events, and so on.

John, Robinson, Christmas, Tuesday

You can use these in the plural only if you think of them in a ‘countable’ way. This is especially common with proper nouns expressing time.

Ex:-On Tuesdays I go swimming.
-Are the Robinsons coming to the party?
-We stayed with Mary three Christmases ago.


2. Most uncountable nouns, such as music and advice, are only singular (see Nouns: countable and uncountable).

3. A group of nouns which you use in the singular, even though they end in –s. These include the names of certain subjects, diseases, and games.

physics, linguistics, mumps, measles, billiards

A common mistake is to think of these as plural, and use them with a plural verb or form a singular noun from them.

Ex:-Linguistics is fascinating.
| NOT | Linguistics are fascinating.
-Billiards is a game.
| NOT | Billiards are a game.
-Poor Mike’s got measles.
| NOT | Poor Mike’s got a measle.

NOUNS WHICH ARE ONLY PLURAL

Several nouns are used only in the plural. There are three main types:


1. A few nouns are related to things consisting of two joined parts. They include jeans, binoculars, trousers, pliers, scissors. To talk about these in the singular, you use a pair of.
Ex:-Your jeans are in the wash.
| NOT | Your jeans is in the wash.
-I need to buy another pair of jeans.
| NOT | I need to buy another jeans.
| NOT | I need to buy another jean.

2. A few nouns ending in –s are used only in the plural. They include congratulations, outskirts, remains, clothes, thanks.
Ex:-His clothes were dirty.
| NOT | His clothes was dirty.
| NOT | His clothe was dirty.

These are not uncountable nouns, because they are used with a plural verb, not a singular verb.

3. A few nouns express the idea of groups of people or animals. They include people, folk, police, cattle, poultry, livestock.

Ex:-The police are outside.
| NOT | The police is outside
| NOT | The polices are outside.

READ MORE - Nouns: singular and plural

Nouns: countable and uncountable

COUNTABLE NOUNS
A noun is ‘countable’ if you can think of it as one of several separate units, for example book, egg, or horse. As the name suggests, countable nouns can actually be counted.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
A noun is ‘uncountable’ if you cannot think of it as one of several separate units, but only as a single idea or substance, for example butter, music, or advice. These nouns are sometimes called ‘mass’ nouns. They cannot be counted.

GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES
There are some important grammatical differences in the way you use countable and uncountable nouns.



1. You can use a countable noun in the singular or in the plural, for example book/books, egg/eggs, horse/horses, ticket/tickets, university/universities. Don’t try to use uncountable nouns in the plural. Don’t say butters, musics, advices, informations, furnitures. It is a common mistake to use an uncountable noun in the plural.

Ex:-You should listen to his advice. NOT You should listen to his advices.


2. You can use a countable noun with a or an: for example a book, an egg, a horse, a ticket, a university. Don’t use a or an with uncountable nouns. Don’t say a butter, a music, an advice, an information, a furniture. It is a common mistake to use a or an with an uncountable noun.

Ex:-I like listening to music. NOT I like listening to a music.


3. You can use an uncountable noun with quantity words such as some and any: some butter, any music. If you want to use these words with countable nouns, you must put the nouns into the plural, and say some tickets, any eggs.

Ex:-She bought some books. NOT She bought some book.


4. You can only use the quantity expressions much, how much, or a little with uncountable nouns. With countable nouns, you have to use many, how many, or a few.

uncountable
-He doesn’t have many friends.
-How many records do you have?
-There are a few rooms still available.

countable
-I don’t have much money.
-How much time do you have?
-There is a little butter in the fridge.

5. You can use an uncountable noun on its own without such words as the, some, or any.

Ex:-She doesn’t eat meat.
-If you need advice, don’t be afraid to ask.

You cannot use a countable noun in the singular in this way – only in the plural.

Ex:-I like reading books.
| NOT | I like reading book.
-Computers are always causing problems.
| NOT | Computers are always causing problem.

NOUNS WHICH CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE
You can use some nouns in either a countable or an uncountable way, depending on their meaning. The following pairs of sentences show how the meaning can change: in each case there is a countable noun in the first sentence, and an uncountable noun in the second.

Ex:-Would you like a cake? (=one of several cakes which someone can take to eat)
-Do you like chocolate cake? (=a type of food)
-The lambs were born early this year. (=the animals)
-There are several ways of cooking lamb. (=a type of meat)

Most abstract nouns, such as love, anger, knowledge, intelligence, or freedom, are always uncountable. But some abstract nouns can also be used in a countable way.

uncountable
-They did it with difficulty.
-Her voice sounded full of doubt.

countable
-They’ve had a lot of difficulties.
-I have my doubts about whether he’s the right person for the job

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Active and passive

In the sentence The dog chased the cat, the verb (chased) is active. If you turn it around, and say The cat was chased by the dog, the verb (was chased) is passive. You form the passive by using the verb be and the past participle of the main verb. For example, the passive of attack is be attacked, the passive of pay is be paid, and the passive of see is be seen. You can only use the passive with transitive verbs (see Verbs: intransitive and transitive).

WHEN TO USE AN ACTIVE VERB
You use an active verb when you want to say that the subject of a sentence does something. For example:

Ex:-She opened the window.

WHEN TO USE A PASSIVE VERB

You use a passive verb when you want to say that something happens to the subject of the sentence. For example:

Ex:-President Kennedy was killed in 1963.

You often use a passive verb when talking about the history of something. For example:

Ex:-The bridge was built in the 19th century.
-The company was established in 1826.

In these cases, it is much more natural to use the passive than to find a vague, active way of expressing the sentence (such as Someone built this bridge in the 19th century.)

You often use a passive verb when you are writing about science, or when you are saying how things are made. For example:

Ex:-Hydrogen and oxygen can be easily mixed in this way.
-Paper is made from wood.

If you used an active verb here, you would have to say who does the action –

information which is not known or not important.

If you want to say who does the action of the verb in a passive sentence, use by and then say who does it.

Ex:-President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963.
-The bridge was designed by Brunel.

HOW TO CHANGE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE INTO A PASSIVE ONE
There are three things you need to do in order to change an active sentence into a passive one.


1. Move the subject of the active verb to the end of the sentence, and put by in front of it.
2. Move the object of the active verb to the front of the sentence, so that it becomes the passive subject.
3. Change the verb from active to passive. You do this by adding a form of the auxiliary verb be and changing the main verb to the past participle form (see Talking about the past).

THE PASSIVE WITH ‘GET’
You can also make a passive using get instead of be. This kind of passive is very common in conversation. Do not use it in formal writing. You often use this kind of passive to say that something happened suddenly to someone.

Ex:-I got sacked by my firm.
| OR | I was sacked by my firm.
-He got hit by a car.
| OR | He was hit by a car.

You can also use the passive with get when you want to suggest that an action is more forceful or more important to you.

Ex:-I get paid on Thursday.
| OR | I am paid on Thursday.
-We often get asked this question.
| OR | We are often asked this question

READ MORE - Active and passive

Conditionals

When you want to say that one situation (described in the main clause) depends on another situation, you use a conditional clause.

Conditional clauses usually begin with if or (for negative clauses) unless.

Ex:-Jane will pass the exam if she works hard.
=>Jane will not pass the exam unless she works hard.
They may follow or go in front of the main clause.

If Jane works hard, she will pass her exam.

Conditional clauses are used in two main ways:
•If you see the situation as a real one, and likely to happen, you use the simple present tense in the conditional clause and will (’ll) or won’t in the main clause. Don’t use will in the conditional clause.

Ex:-If you take a taxi, you will be there in good time. NOT If you will take a taxi...
=>If you wear a coat, you won’t get cold. NOT If you will wear a coat...

•If you see the situation as unreal, imaginary, or less likely to happen, you use the simple past tense in the conditional clause and would (’d), might, or could in the main clause. Don’t use would in the conditional clause.

Ex:-If you saw a ghost, what would you do? NOT If you would see a ghost...
=>If I bought a new coat, I might not feel so cold. (=I would possibly not feel so cold)

=>If I found their address, I could write to them. (=I would be able to write to them)

In sentences of this kind, the past tense of the verb be appears as were after the first and third persons, in formal speech and writing. Only use was in informal speech.

Ex:-If I were at home, I would be watching television. (informal: If I was at home...)
=>If John were playing today, we’d have a chance of winning. (informal: If John was playing...)

•If you want to talk about conditional situations in the past, use had (’d) in the conditional clause, and would have in the main clause.

EX:-If I’d seen her, I would have asked her to call. (=I did not see her)
-The books wouldn’t have been damaged if Mary had moved them. (=Mary didn’t move them)

•You can use when instead of if in sentences of the first type (simple present + will etc), but not with those of the second (simple past + would etc). When is not used for situations that are unlikely or impossible.

Ex:-What will John do if he goes home? (=John is probably going home) OR What will John do when he goes home? (=John is definitely going home)
-What would John do if he went home? (=John is probably not going home) NOT What would John do when he went home?
-I would shout if I saw a ghost. NOT I would shout when I saw a ghost.

I wish
If you want to talk about a situation in the present which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use the simple past tense in a clause after I wish.

Ex:-I wish I had a new bike. (=unfortunately, I don’t have a new bike)

If you want to talk about a situation in the past which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use had.

Ex:-I wish I’d gone by train. (=unfortunately, I didn’t go by train)
-I wish I hadn’t gone by train. (=unfortunately, I did go by train)

READ MORE - Conditionals

Modal verbs

The main ‘modal verbs’ (or ‘modals’) are:

can | may | will | shall | mustcould | might | would | should |

Ought to, used to, dare and need are also used as modal verbs, but they have other uses as well.

WHEN TO USE MODAL VERBS
Modals have several meanings, so you need to think about the meaning of the sentence as a whole to be sure that your choice of modal expresses exactly what you want to say. The main ideas that modals are used to express are shown in the following sections.

Permission (=allowing someone to do something)

If you want to give or ask for permission, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

Ex:-You can leave when the bell rings.
-Customers may purchase extra copies at half price.

Could is a polite way of asking for permission.

Ex:-Could I leave early today?

Might is a very formal and old–fashioned way of asking for permission.

Ex:-Might I borrow your umbrella?

Obligation (=saying what someone must do)

If you want to demand that something happens, or that someone does something (=to express obligation), use must. You can also use this idea about yourself, in order to express a sense of duty.

Ex:-The builders must finish the job today.
-We mustn’t leave the house before 6 o’clock.
-I must remember to bring my notebook.

Intention (=saying what you are going to do)

If you want to say that you intend to do something, use will or shall. You can emphasize the meaning of intention if you say the modal louder than the surrounding words.

Shall is only used with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. It is hardly ever used in American English.

Ex:-This letter says they will definitely give us our money back.
-I shan’t stay long.

To express an intention at a time in the past, use would.

Ex:-I tried to explain, but nobody would listen.

Use would if there are conditions controlling whether something will take place.

Ex:-I would leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Ability (=saying whether you are able to do something)

Ex:-If you want to say whether someone is able to carry out an action, use can.
-Guy can speak Russian.
-Can you remember her name?
-I can’t find my shoes!

When you talk about the past, use could.

Ex:-He was late for school because he couldn’t find his bag.

Use could if there are conditions controlling whether the event will take place.

Ex:-I could leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Possibility (=saying whether something is possible)

If you want to say that something is possible, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

Ex:-These chairs can be stored flat.
-You may find the manager is still there, if you go to the office now.

If you want to suggest that the event is less likely to happen, use could or might. If you use might, you mean that the event is especially unlikely.

Ex:-It could be interesting.

It might be interesting. (=it is possible, but unlikely)

Probability (=saying whether something is likely)

If you want to suggest that an event is likely to happen, use should or ought to. It will probably take place, but you are not completely sure.

Ex:-If you take these tablets, you should be all right.
-They should have had our reply by now.
-We ought to be there by 6 o’clock.

Desirability (=saying that something is the right thing to do)

If you want to say that you think it is a good thing for something to happen, use should or ought to. If you think that it is a bad thing for something to happen, put these verbs into the negative.

Ex:-You should get the early flight, if you want to be in good time.
-You ought to see the doctor as soon as possible.
-You shouldn’t say things like that.
-You oughtn’t to have left the engine running.

Necessity (=saying that something is necessary)

If you want to say that it is necessary for something to happen, use must.

Ex:-We really must go now.
-I must get my hair cut this weekend.

If you want to express the opposite meaning (=it is unnecessary for something to happen) use needn’t/need not or not need to.

Ex:-There’s plenty of time, so you needn’t worry.

Don’t use mustn’t because this gives the meaning of obligation.

Certainty (=saying that you are sure about something)

If you want to say that you are sure something is true, use must.

Ex:-You must be tired, after all your hard work.
-They must have left by now.

To express the opposite meaning (=you are sure something is not true) use can’t.

Ex:-You can’t be that tired – you’ve only been working for an hour!
-They can’t have left yet.

Prediction (=saying what you think is going to happen)

If you want to say that something is certain to happen, use either will or shall. As with the other uses of these words, shall tends to be found only with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. Shall is very rare in American English.

Ex:-The cars will be there on time, I promise.
-There is no doubt that we shall win.

HOW TO USE MODAL VERBS
With transitive phrasal verbs, you have to decide where to put the object.

•Modal verbs are used with the basic form of the verb (=the infinitive form, without ‘to’).
Ex:-You must pay now.
| NOT | You must to pay now.
-They can go home if they want.
| NOT | They can to go home if they want.

•Modal verbs do not have an –s ending in the present tense of the third person singular.

Ex:-He can speak French.

•Modal verbs are not used with do in questions or negatives.

Ex:-Can you remember her name?
| NOT | Do you can remember her name?
-We must not be late.
| NOT | We don’t must be late.
-Should we lock the door?
| NOT | Do we should lock the door?

•Modal verbs do not have an infinitive, a past participle, or a present participle.
•n spoken English, you often use short forms when you use the modal verb in the negative.

cannot | → | can’tcould not | → | couldn’twill not | → | won’tmust not | → | mustn’tshall not | → | shan’tmight not | → | mightn’twould not | → | wouldn’tshould not | → | shouldn’tought not | → | oughtn’t

Mustn’t, shan’t, mightn’t, and oughtn’t are normal in British English, but American speakers usually say must not, shall not, might not, and ought not.

READ MORE - Modal verbs