USE OF NAMES IN FIRST REFERENCE

In first reference, use the first name, middle name, and family name; first name, middle initial, and family name; first initial, middle initial, and family name; or the first name and family name; not the first initial and family name:

Raymond Pascua Dumag,
Raymond P Dumag,
R P Dumag,
or Raymond Dumag,
not R Dumag;

Annabelle Quevedo Passi,
Annabelle Q Passi,
A Q Passi,
or Annabelle Passi,
not A Passi.

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CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction, such as as...as, so...as, if...then, either…or, both…and, neither…nor, where...there, whether…or, not only…but also, among others.

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Initialism, Acronisms, Contractions

In precise usage, initialisms, acronyms, and contractions are forms of abbreviations, which are used to save time and space. Initialisms refer to terms based on the first letters of their various elements and read as a series of letters: ABS-CBN for Alto Broadcasting System–Chronicle Broadcasting Network. Acronyms refer to terms based on the first letter or letters of their various elements and read as single words: Unesco for United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; Napocor for National Power Corporation. Contractions refer to terms based on the first and the last letters of words and read similarly: Mr for Mister.

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Coordinating Conjunction

A conjunction, such as so, which indicates an outcome; nor, which indicates a negative choice; and, which indicates equality or parallelism; or, which indicates a choice or an alternative; for, which indicates cause and effect relationship; and but and yet, which indicates contrast or something contrary to expectation.

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Determiners and articles

‘Determiners’ are used before a noun to ‘determine’ the character of the noun – in particular, how ‘definite’ or ‘general’ a noun it is, and whether it is ‘one’ or ‘more than one’. When you use a noun, you have the choice of using it in one of three possible states.

1. You can use the noun without any determiner at all.

• in the singular, if it is a proper noun

• in the singular, if it is an uncountable noun

• in the plural, if it is a countable noun

Ex:-Boston is on the east coast.
-I can hear music.
-Tigers have black stripes.

When you use a plural countable noun without a determiner, you are seeing the noun in a general way – ‘tigers in general’.

2. You can use the noun with either of the ‘articles’, a or the:

• use a with singular countable nouns

• use the with singular countable nouns

• use the with plural countable nouns

• use the with uncountable nouns

I can see a car.

I can see the car.

I can see the cars.

I can see the water.

The articles are the most common determiners in English. Their main job is to say whether the noun is ‘definite’ or ‘indefinite’.

3. You can use the noun with one of the other determiners. This adds a further meaning to the noun. For example:
determiner __adds the meaning of
my book__________________________‘possession’ (also our, his, her etc)

this book________________________‘nearness to the speaker’ (also plural these)

that book________________________‘distance from the speaker’ (also plural those)

some books_______________________‘quantity’ (also any)

enough books_____________________‘sufficiency’

each book________________________‘item by item’ (also every)

either book______________________‘one of two’ (also neither)

no book__________________________‘absence’

what book________________________‘unknown item’ (also which, whose etc)

You cannot use two determiners at the same time. Don’t say things like ‘the this car’, ‘my an apple’, or ‘some the cups’.

You can use other words or phrases expressing quantity in front of a determiner to make the meaning of the noun phrase more exact.

NOTE: (of) shows that you can leave out the word of.

all (of) the people | both (of) the cats | half (of) the golddouble the amount | twice the cost | a third of the peoplea few of the cars | half (of) that cake | some of those cakes

You can also add certain quantity words after the determiner. They include the numerals, as well as a few general expressions of quantity.

Ex:-The three kittens were playing on the floor.
-I’ve just taken my fourth examination.
-He bought it on one of his many trips abroad.

If you want to add adjectives to the noun phrase (see Word order), they always follow any determiners or other quantity expressions.

Ex:-the three little kittens
-my fourth difficult examination
-his many interesting trips

WHEN TO USE ‘A’ AND ‘THE’
A and the are called ‘the articles’. A is called ‘the indefinite article’, and the is called ‘the definite article’. They are used in the following ways:


1. The main use of a and the is to say whether you are talking about a noun for the first time, or whether you have mentioned it before. For a first–time mention, use a; for later mentions, use the.

Ex:-Mary bought a car and a bike, but she used the bike more often.

2. If you use the with a noun that you have not mentioned before, you are actually saying to your listener ‘you know which one I mean’. This is usually because there is only one example of the noun in the situation, or you have only one such example in your mind. That is why it is ‘definite’.

Ex:-Have you fed the cat? (=you have only one cat)
-There’s the hotel. (=that is the hotel we have been looking for)
-I met him during the war. (=both you and your listener know which war you mean)
-Pass the salt, please.

3. If you want to talk about something of a particular type in an indefinite way, use a.

Ex:-I’m training to be an engineer.
| NOT | I’m training to be engineer.
-I went out to buy a newspaper.
| NOT | I went out to buy newspaper.

4. Use a when you are talking about one of several things or people and it is not important to say which one. Use the when it is clear that you are talking about one particular thing or person and there is only one.

Ex:-A man I work with told me about it. (=you work with several men)
-The man I work with told me about it. (=you work with only one man)

5. You must use the with singular nouns such as world, sky, or sun, because there is only one of these things in the situation that you are talking about.

Ex:-We’re going to travel round the world.
-Don’t look directly at the sun

6. If you are talking about buildings, places, and organizations as things which you often see or visit, use the. For example: the bank, the theatre, the cinema etc.

Ex:-I went to the theatre last week.
-She’s at the gym.

When a is used before a word that begins with a vowel, it changes to an.

WHEN NOT TO USE ‘A’ OR ‘THE’

1. If you want to use a countable noun in the plural to talk in general about something, don’t use the.

Ex:-Tigers are very fierce animals.
-Prices keep going up.

2. If you want to use an uncountable noun to talk in general about something, don’t use the.

Ex:-There has been a big increase in crime.
| NOT | There has been a big increase in the crime.
-It takes patience and skill to be a teacher.
| NOT | It takes the patience and the skill to be a teacher.

3. Most names of places or people that begin with a capital letter do not have the before them. Don’t use the with these names.

Ex:-They’re visiting Belgium and Holland.
| NOT | They’re visiting the Belgium and the Holland.

However, there are some names that always have the in them, for example the United States, the Nile (=the big river in Egypt) etc. Don’t forget to put the in these names.

Ex:-He’s from the United States.
| NOT | He’s from United States.

There are also many common nouns and phrases which are not used with a or the. This is especially true when talking about meals, illnesses, ways of travelling, times, and periods of time.

Will you have lunch with me? | NOT | Will you have the lunch with me?Her mother has cancer. | NOT | Her mother has the cancer.I travel to work by bus. | NOT | I travel to work by the bus.In winter we get a lot of snow. | NOT | In winter we get a lot of the snow.It’s time to go to bed. | NOT | It’s time to go to the bed.We got up at dawn. | NOT | We got up at the dawn.

READ MORE - Determiners and articles

Nouns: singular and plural

Most countable nouns have both a singular and a plural form, showing the difference between ‘one’ and ‘more than one’.

REGULAR PLURALS
The regular way of changing a noun from singular to plural is to add –s or –es at the end.
Ex:-dog – dogs, chair – chairs, difference – differences, dress – dresses, watch – watches

For nouns ending in –y, you drop the –y and add –ies to form the plural, if the –y follows a consonant.

Ex:-dictionary – dictionaries, opportunity – opportunities

For some nouns ending in –o, you add –es to form the plural, for others you add –s.

Ex:-tomato – tomatoes, potato – potatoes, radio – radios, cello – cellos

IRREGULAR PLURALS
There are also several irregular ways of forming a plural.


1. With seven nouns you change the vowel. They are:
Ex:-man – men
-woman – women
-foot – feet
-goose – geese
-mouse – mice
-tooth – teeth
-louse – lice

2. With a few nouns you change the final –f to –v before adding the –s ending.
They include:

knife – knives
leaf – leaves
wife – wives
half – halves

Some nouns in this group have a regular plural as well: scarfs and scarves, hoofs and hooves. Both possibilities are correct.


3. With three nouns you add –en. They are:

ox – oxen, child – children, brother – brethren (only in the religious sense)


4. A few nouns which have been borrowed from foreign languages have an irregular plural. They include:

stimulus – stimuli, crisis – crises, criterion – criteria, phenomenon – phenomena

Often these nouns have two plurals: they have developed a regular plural but have also kept their original irregular one. In these cases, the regular form is more informal and popular; the irregular form tends to be used by specialists.

Ex:-There are no certain formulas for success. (informal)
-We have to learn all the relevant chemical formulae. (specialist)

5. A few nouns have no plural ending, but you can still use them in a singular or plural way: they include the names of some animals (such as sheep, deer, cod), some nouns expressing quantity (such as ton, p (=pence)), and a few others (such as aircraft, crossroads, kennels, offspring).

Ex:-The sheep was making a noise. The sheep were making a noise.

PLURALS FOR COMPOUND NOUNS
Compound nouns combine two or more words into a single unit. You usually make them plural by adding –s at the end of the word: can–openers, grown–ups. But in a few cases, the first part of the compound takes the –s ending, especially when the compound contains an adverb or preposition.

-runner–up
-runners–up
-passer–by
-passers–by
-man–of–war
-men–of–war

Sometimes, a regular plural form has developed, which is slowly replacing the irregular one.

spoonfuls (also spoonsful)

mother–in–laws (also mothers–in–law)

NOUNS WHICH ARE ONLY SINGULAR

Several nouns are used only in the singular. There are three main types:


1. Proper names – names of particular people, places, times, occasions, events, and so on.

John, Robinson, Christmas, Tuesday

You can use these in the plural only if you think of them in a ‘countable’ way. This is especially common with proper nouns expressing time.

Ex:-On Tuesdays I go swimming.
-Are the Robinsons coming to the party?
-We stayed with Mary three Christmases ago.


2. Most uncountable nouns, such as music and advice, are only singular (see Nouns: countable and uncountable).

3. A group of nouns which you use in the singular, even though they end in –s. These include the names of certain subjects, diseases, and games.

physics, linguistics, mumps, measles, billiards

A common mistake is to think of these as plural, and use them with a plural verb or form a singular noun from them.

Ex:-Linguistics is fascinating.
| NOT | Linguistics are fascinating.
-Billiards is a game.
| NOT | Billiards are a game.
-Poor Mike’s got measles.
| NOT | Poor Mike’s got a measle.

NOUNS WHICH ARE ONLY PLURAL

Several nouns are used only in the plural. There are three main types:


1. A few nouns are related to things consisting of two joined parts. They include jeans, binoculars, trousers, pliers, scissors. To talk about these in the singular, you use a pair of.
Ex:-Your jeans are in the wash.
| NOT | Your jeans is in the wash.
-I need to buy another pair of jeans.
| NOT | I need to buy another jeans.
| NOT | I need to buy another jean.

2. A few nouns ending in –s are used only in the plural. They include congratulations, outskirts, remains, clothes, thanks.
Ex:-His clothes were dirty.
| NOT | His clothes was dirty.
| NOT | His clothe was dirty.

These are not uncountable nouns, because they are used with a plural verb, not a singular verb.

3. A few nouns express the idea of groups of people or animals. They include people, folk, police, cattle, poultry, livestock.

Ex:-The police are outside.
| NOT | The police is outside
| NOT | The polices are outside.

READ MORE - Nouns: singular and plural

Nouns: countable and uncountable

COUNTABLE NOUNS
A noun is ‘countable’ if you can think of it as one of several separate units, for example book, egg, or horse. As the name suggests, countable nouns can actually be counted.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
A noun is ‘uncountable’ if you cannot think of it as one of several separate units, but only as a single idea or substance, for example butter, music, or advice. These nouns are sometimes called ‘mass’ nouns. They cannot be counted.

GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES
There are some important grammatical differences in the way you use countable and uncountable nouns.



1. You can use a countable noun in the singular or in the plural, for example book/books, egg/eggs, horse/horses, ticket/tickets, university/universities. Don’t try to use uncountable nouns in the plural. Don’t say butters, musics, advices, informations, furnitures. It is a common mistake to use an uncountable noun in the plural.

Ex:-You should listen to his advice. NOT You should listen to his advices.


2. You can use a countable noun with a or an: for example a book, an egg, a horse, a ticket, a university. Don’t use a or an with uncountable nouns. Don’t say a butter, a music, an advice, an information, a furniture. It is a common mistake to use a or an with an uncountable noun.

Ex:-I like listening to music. NOT I like listening to a music.


3. You can use an uncountable noun with quantity words such as some and any: some butter, any music. If you want to use these words with countable nouns, you must put the nouns into the plural, and say some tickets, any eggs.

Ex:-She bought some books. NOT She bought some book.


4. You can only use the quantity expressions much, how much, or a little with uncountable nouns. With countable nouns, you have to use many, how many, or a few.

uncountable
-He doesn’t have many friends.
-How many records do you have?
-There are a few rooms still available.

countable
-I don’t have much money.
-How much time do you have?
-There is a little butter in the fridge.

5. You can use an uncountable noun on its own without such words as the, some, or any.

Ex:-She doesn’t eat meat.
-If you need advice, don’t be afraid to ask.

You cannot use a countable noun in the singular in this way – only in the plural.

Ex:-I like reading books.
| NOT | I like reading book.
-Computers are always causing problems.
| NOT | Computers are always causing problem.

NOUNS WHICH CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE
You can use some nouns in either a countable or an uncountable way, depending on their meaning. The following pairs of sentences show how the meaning can change: in each case there is a countable noun in the first sentence, and an uncountable noun in the second.

Ex:-Would you like a cake? (=one of several cakes which someone can take to eat)
-Do you like chocolate cake? (=a type of food)
-The lambs were born early this year. (=the animals)
-There are several ways of cooking lamb. (=a type of meat)

Most abstract nouns, such as love, anger, knowledge, intelligence, or freedom, are always uncountable. But some abstract nouns can also be used in a countable way.

uncountable
-They did it with difficulty.
-Her voice sounded full of doubt.

countable
-They’ve had a lot of difficulties.
-I have my doubts about whether he’s the right person for the job

READ MORE - Nouns: countable and uncountable

Active and passive

In the sentence The dog chased the cat, the verb (chased) is active. If you turn it around, and say The cat was chased by the dog, the verb (was chased) is passive. You form the passive by using the verb be and the past participle of the main verb. For example, the passive of attack is be attacked, the passive of pay is be paid, and the passive of see is be seen. You can only use the passive with transitive verbs (see Verbs: intransitive and transitive).

WHEN TO USE AN ACTIVE VERB
You use an active verb when you want to say that the subject of a sentence does something. For example:

Ex:-She opened the window.

WHEN TO USE A PASSIVE VERB

You use a passive verb when you want to say that something happens to the subject of the sentence. For example:

Ex:-President Kennedy was killed in 1963.

You often use a passive verb when talking about the history of something. For example:

Ex:-The bridge was built in the 19th century.
-The company was established in 1826.

In these cases, it is much more natural to use the passive than to find a vague, active way of expressing the sentence (such as Someone built this bridge in the 19th century.)

You often use a passive verb when you are writing about science, or when you are saying how things are made. For example:

Ex:-Hydrogen and oxygen can be easily mixed in this way.
-Paper is made from wood.

If you used an active verb here, you would have to say who does the action –

information which is not known or not important.

If you want to say who does the action of the verb in a passive sentence, use by and then say who does it.

Ex:-President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963.
-The bridge was designed by Brunel.

HOW TO CHANGE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE INTO A PASSIVE ONE
There are three things you need to do in order to change an active sentence into a passive one.


1. Move the subject of the active verb to the end of the sentence, and put by in front of it.
2. Move the object of the active verb to the front of the sentence, so that it becomes the passive subject.
3. Change the verb from active to passive. You do this by adding a form of the auxiliary verb be and changing the main verb to the past participle form (see Talking about the past).

THE PASSIVE WITH ‘GET’
You can also make a passive using get instead of be. This kind of passive is very common in conversation. Do not use it in formal writing. You often use this kind of passive to say that something happened suddenly to someone.

Ex:-I got sacked by my firm.
| OR | I was sacked by my firm.
-He got hit by a car.
| OR | He was hit by a car.

You can also use the passive with get when you want to suggest that an action is more forceful or more important to you.

Ex:-I get paid on Thursday.
| OR | I am paid on Thursday.
-We often get asked this question.
| OR | We are often asked this question

READ MORE - Active and passive

Conditionals

When you want to say that one situation (described in the main clause) depends on another situation, you use a conditional clause.

Conditional clauses usually begin with if or (for negative clauses) unless.

Ex:-Jane will pass the exam if she works hard.
=>Jane will not pass the exam unless she works hard.
They may follow or go in front of the main clause.

If Jane works hard, she will pass her exam.

Conditional clauses are used in two main ways:
•If you see the situation as a real one, and likely to happen, you use the simple present tense in the conditional clause and will (’ll) or won’t in the main clause. Don’t use will in the conditional clause.

Ex:-If you take a taxi, you will be there in good time. NOT If you will take a taxi...
=>If you wear a coat, you won’t get cold. NOT If you will wear a coat...

•If you see the situation as unreal, imaginary, or less likely to happen, you use the simple past tense in the conditional clause and would (’d), might, or could in the main clause. Don’t use would in the conditional clause.

Ex:-If you saw a ghost, what would you do? NOT If you would see a ghost...
=>If I bought a new coat, I might not feel so cold. (=I would possibly not feel so cold)

=>If I found their address, I could write to them. (=I would be able to write to them)

In sentences of this kind, the past tense of the verb be appears as were after the first and third persons, in formal speech and writing. Only use was in informal speech.

Ex:-If I were at home, I would be watching television. (informal: If I was at home...)
=>If John were playing today, we’d have a chance of winning. (informal: If John was playing...)

•If you want to talk about conditional situations in the past, use had (’d) in the conditional clause, and would have in the main clause.

EX:-If I’d seen her, I would have asked her to call. (=I did not see her)
-The books wouldn’t have been damaged if Mary had moved them. (=Mary didn’t move them)

•You can use when instead of if in sentences of the first type (simple present + will etc), but not with those of the second (simple past + would etc). When is not used for situations that are unlikely or impossible.

Ex:-What will John do if he goes home? (=John is probably going home) OR What will John do when he goes home? (=John is definitely going home)
-What would John do if he went home? (=John is probably not going home) NOT What would John do when he went home?
-I would shout if I saw a ghost. NOT I would shout when I saw a ghost.

I wish
If you want to talk about a situation in the present which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use the simple past tense in a clause after I wish.

Ex:-I wish I had a new bike. (=unfortunately, I don’t have a new bike)

If you want to talk about a situation in the past which you are not happy about, and would like to change, use had.

Ex:-I wish I’d gone by train. (=unfortunately, I didn’t go by train)
-I wish I hadn’t gone by train. (=unfortunately, I did go by train)

READ MORE - Conditionals

Modal verbs

The main ‘modal verbs’ (or ‘modals’) are:

can | may | will | shall | mustcould | might | would | should |

Ought to, used to, dare and need are also used as modal verbs, but they have other uses as well.

WHEN TO USE MODAL VERBS
Modals have several meanings, so you need to think about the meaning of the sentence as a whole to be sure that your choice of modal expresses exactly what you want to say. The main ideas that modals are used to express are shown in the following sections.

Permission (=allowing someone to do something)

If you want to give or ask for permission, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

Ex:-You can leave when the bell rings.
-Customers may purchase extra copies at half price.

Could is a polite way of asking for permission.

Ex:-Could I leave early today?

Might is a very formal and old–fashioned way of asking for permission.

Ex:-Might I borrow your umbrella?

Obligation (=saying what someone must do)

If you want to demand that something happens, or that someone does something (=to express obligation), use must. You can also use this idea about yourself, in order to express a sense of duty.

Ex:-The builders must finish the job today.
-We mustn’t leave the house before 6 o’clock.
-I must remember to bring my notebook.

Intention (=saying what you are going to do)

If you want to say that you intend to do something, use will or shall. You can emphasize the meaning of intention if you say the modal louder than the surrounding words.

Shall is only used with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. It is hardly ever used in American English.

Ex:-This letter says they will definitely give us our money back.
-I shan’t stay long.

To express an intention at a time in the past, use would.

Ex:-I tried to explain, but nobody would listen.

Use would if there are conditions controlling whether something will take place.

Ex:-I would leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Ability (=saying whether you are able to do something)

Ex:-If you want to say whether someone is able to carry out an action, use can.
-Guy can speak Russian.
-Can you remember her name?
-I can’t find my shoes!

When you talk about the past, use could.

Ex:-He was late for school because he couldn’t find his bag.

Use could if there are conditions controlling whether the event will take place.

Ex:-I could leave tomorrow, if I had the money.

Possibility (=saying whether something is possible)

If you want to say that something is possible, use can or may. May is more polite or formal than can.

Ex:-These chairs can be stored flat.
-You may find the manager is still there, if you go to the office now.

If you want to suggest that the event is less likely to happen, use could or might. If you use might, you mean that the event is especially unlikely.

Ex:-It could be interesting.

It might be interesting. (=it is possible, but unlikely)

Probability (=saying whether something is likely)

If you want to suggest that an event is likely to happen, use should or ought to. It will probably take place, but you are not completely sure.

Ex:-If you take these tablets, you should be all right.
-They should have had our reply by now.
-We ought to be there by 6 o’clock.

Desirability (=saying that something is the right thing to do)

If you want to say that you think it is a good thing for something to happen, use should or ought to. If you think that it is a bad thing for something to happen, put these verbs into the negative.

Ex:-You should get the early flight, if you want to be in good time.
-You ought to see the doctor as soon as possible.
-You shouldn’t say things like that.
-You oughtn’t to have left the engine running.

Necessity (=saying that something is necessary)

If you want to say that it is necessary for something to happen, use must.

Ex:-We really must go now.
-I must get my hair cut this weekend.

If you want to express the opposite meaning (=it is unnecessary for something to happen) use needn’t/need not or not need to.

Ex:-There’s plenty of time, so you needn’t worry.

Don’t use mustn’t because this gives the meaning of obligation.

Certainty (=saying that you are sure about something)

If you want to say that you are sure something is true, use must.

Ex:-You must be tired, after all your hard work.
-They must have left by now.

To express the opposite meaning (=you are sure something is not true) use can’t.

Ex:-You can’t be that tired – you’ve only been working for an hour!
-They can’t have left yet.

Prediction (=saying what you think is going to happen)

If you want to say that something is certain to happen, use either will or shall. As with the other uses of these words, shall tends to be found only with the first person (I or we), and is much less common than will. Shall is very rare in American English.

Ex:-The cars will be there on time, I promise.
-There is no doubt that we shall win.

HOW TO USE MODAL VERBS
With transitive phrasal verbs, you have to decide where to put the object.

•Modal verbs are used with the basic form of the verb (=the infinitive form, without ‘to’).
Ex:-You must pay now.
| NOT | You must to pay now.
-They can go home if they want.
| NOT | They can to go home if they want.

•Modal verbs do not have an –s ending in the present tense of the third person singular.

Ex:-He can speak French.

•Modal verbs are not used with do in questions or negatives.

Ex:-Can you remember her name?
| NOT | Do you can remember her name?
-We must not be late.
| NOT | We don’t must be late.
-Should we lock the door?
| NOT | Do we should lock the door?

•Modal verbs do not have an infinitive, a past participle, or a present participle.
•n spoken English, you often use short forms when you use the modal verb in the negative.

cannot | → | can’tcould not | → | couldn’twill not | → | won’tmust not | → | mustn’tshall not | → | shan’tmight not | → | mightn’twould not | → | wouldn’tshould not | → | shouldn’tought not | → | oughtn’t

Mustn’t, shan’t, mightn’t, and oughtn’t are normal in British English, but American speakers usually say must not, shall not, might not, and ought not.

READ MORE - Modal verbs

Phrasal verbs

WHAT IS A PHRASAL VERB?
A phrasal verb is a verb which consists of more than one word. Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: the first word is a verb, the second word is a preposition or an adverb. Examples of common phrasal verbs are get up, put off, turn on, look after, and add to. There are also some three–word phrasal verbs, such as look forward to and get away with.

You can sometimes guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the meaning of the words it contains, for example come in = come + in. More often, the meaning of the phrasal verb is different – often very different – from the meaning of the verb which forms its first part.

For example put off (=arrange to do something at a later time) has a very different meaning from put (=put something somewhere), and look forward to (=when you feel happy because something is going to happen soon) has a very different meaning from look (=look at something).

Like single–word verbs, some phrasal verbs are ‘transitive’ (they must have an object), and some phrasal verbs are ‘intransitive’ (they do not have an object).

Ex:-take off [phrasal verb transitive] (=remove your shirt, coat etc)
=>She took off her coat and sat down.
-get up [phrasal verb intransitive] (=leave your bed in the morning)
=>I usually get up very early.

Some phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive.

join in [phrasal verb intransitive/transitive] (=start taking part in something that other people are already doing, for example a game or song)

Ex:-We all joined in the game.
-I want you all to join in.

WHERE DO YOU PUT THE OBJECT?

With transitive phrasal verbs, you have to decide where to put the object.

•If the phrasal verb ends with a preposition, the preposition must come after the verb, and you cannot split up the phrasal verb.

Ex:-look after sb (=make sure someone is safe and has the things they need)
=>Will you look after the children for me?
-add to sth (=increase an amount that is already large)
=>This will just add to the confusion.

•If the phrasal verb ends with an adverb, there are three possibilities.

1. If you choose a noun phrase as the object, you can put it either before or after the adverb.

call off (=decide that a meeting, party, strike etc should not happen)

Ex:-They’ve called off the strike. OR They’ve called the strike off.

turn on (=make a light, television, radio etc start working)

Ex:-Will you turn on the light? OR Will you turn the light on?


2.If you choose a pronoun (him, her, it, them etc) as the object, you have to put it before the adverb.

turn down (=make a television, radio etc less loud)

Ex:-Can you turn it down? NOT Can you turn down it?

3.If the object is a long phrase, you usually put it at the end after the phrasal verb.

Ex:-They’ve called off the strike that was planned for next week.
-Can you turn down the television in the front room?

READ MORE - Phrasal verbs

Talking about the future

There are several ways of talking about the future in English.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘WILL’
You put the verb will in front of the main verb. This is the most common way of expressing future time. The short form of will is ’ll and the short form of will not is won’t. You usually use these in spoken English instead of will or will not. The main verb can be either in its ‘simple’ form or in its ‘progressive’ form.

Ex:-I will talk to them.
-We’ll have a break at six o’clock.
-I’ll talk to them.
-He’ll be arriving later.
-Don’t worry – I won’t break it.

You use will in this meaning in sentences that begin I’m sure, I think, I expect, I suppose, I doubt etc, or with words such as probably, perhaps, certainly etc.

Ex:-“Do you think Carla will pass her test?” “Yes, I’m sure she will.”
-I’ll see him again soon.
-They say it’ll probably snow tomorrow.
-Perhaps things will be better next week.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘SHALL’
In British English, you often use shall in questions when making suggestions about what to do, or when discussing what to do. This use is rare in American English.

Ex:-Shall we go now?
-What shall I tell Mike?

In formal British English, you can sometimes hear I shall used to express future time.

Ex:-I shall try to persuade them.
-This is very rare in American English.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘BE GOING TO’
You use a form of be going to to say that something will happen soon.

Ex:-It’s going to rain.
-Watch out – you’re going to hit that tree!
-I think I’m going to be sick.

You also use a form of be going to to talk about someone’s intentions, or what they have decided to do.

Ex:-I’m going to ask for my money back.
-Lucy is going to travel round the world when she leaves school.

THE FUTURE WITH ‘BE ABOUT TO’
You use be about to to say that something will happen almost immediately.

Ex:-Take your seats, please. The show is about to begin.
-The situation is about to change.

THE FUTURE WITH THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
You use the present progressive (he’s leaving, they’re starting etc) with a word or phrase expressing future time to talk about something that will happen because you have planned or arranged it.

Ex:-We’re leaving on Saturday morning.
-I’m having a party next week – do you want to come?

THE FUTURE WITH THE SIMPLE PRESENT
You use the simple present (it starts, we arrive etc) with a word or phrase expressing future time, to say that something will definitely happen at a particular time, especially because it has been officially arranged.

Ex:-The next plane to Los Angeles leaves at 6:25.
-The meeting is on Thursday.
-What time does the show start?

You use the simple present in subordinate clauses to talk about the future, for example in clauses that begin with when, if, unless, before, after, and as soon as. Don’t use will in this kind of clause.

Ex:-I’ll call you when I get back. NOT I’ll call you when I will get back.
-If the bus leaves on time, it will get there by 6. NOT If the bus will leave on time, it will get there by 6.

READ MORE - Talking about the future

Talking about the past

There are several ways of talking about actions that happened in the past. These include the simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the phrase used to.

THE SIMPLE PAST
You usually make the simple past by adding -ed to the end of the verb. For example:

I walk → I walked
we wait → we waited
they jump → they jumped

Many common verbs have irregular simple past forms, and so you have to use a special ending, or change the verb in some other way. For example:

I go → I went
we buy → we bought
they see → they saw

You use the simple past to talk about an action which happened and finished in the past. There is a space between the time when the action happened, and the time when you are speaking or writing about it.

Ex:-He kicked the ball into the net.
-I went home early because I had a headache.
-The police found a dead body in the river.

You often use words or phrases such as at midnight, on Tuesday, in 1992, yesterday, and last year with the simple past, to draw attention to the time when something happened. For example:

Ex:-Our visitors arrived yesterday.
-Where did you go last week?
-The war ended in 1945.

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE
You make the past progressive by using was or were, followed by the main verb with an –ing ending, for example I was looking, they were laughing.

The past progressive is used in the following ways:

1. You use the past progressive when you want to talk about something that happened in the past, and continued to happen for only a limited period of time.

Ex:-We were living in France at that time.
-I was trying to get the waiter’s attention.
-The man was looking at me in a very strange way.

2. You use the past progressive to talk about something which continued to happen for a period of time, during which another thing happened.

Ex:-I was watching TV when the phone rang.
-They met each other while they were staying in London.

Some verbs are not usually used in the progressive. Don’t say, ‘I was not believing him’. Say I did not believe him. See Talking about the present for a list of these verbs.


THE PRESENT PERFECT
You make the present perfect by using has or have, followed by the past participle form of the main verb, for example I have walked, she has gone, they have seen.

The present perfect is used in the following ways:
1. You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened in the past and is finished, but which still affects the situation now.

Someone has broken the window. (RESULT NOW: it is still broken, and needs to be mended)

Ex:-The taxi has arrived. (RESULT NOW: someone needs to go and get into the taxi)
-Jane’s hurt her hand, so she can’t write. (RESULT NOW: Jane can’t write)

You often use just and recently with the present perfect in this meaning.

-Jane’s just left, but you might catch her in the car park.



In American English, people often use the simple past instead of the present perfect in this sense.
British English_____________________American English

I’ve just seen Carol._______________I just saw Carol.
You’ve already told me that.________You already told me that.
Have they come home yet?____________Did they come home yet?

2. You use the present perfect to say that something started to happen in the past, and has continued to happen up to now. There is a clear difference with the past tense, which you use when the action is finished. Compare these sentences:

present perfect: I have lived in Chicago for many years. (=I still live there now)

simple past: I lived in Chicago for many years. (=now I live somewhere else)

present perfect: Jim has worked for us since 1992. (=he still works for us now)

simple past: Jim worked for us from 1992 to 1996. (=he does not work for us any more)
Don’t say ‘I am living here for 10 years’, or ‘I live here for 10 years’. Say I have lived here for 10 years.

3. You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened at some time in the past before now, when it is not important to say when it happened.

Ex:-She has had several jobs abroad.

There have been problems with this system in the past.

This meaning of the present perfect is often used in this way in news reports.

There has been a big earthquake in Japan, and hundreds of people have been killed.

You can emphasize this meaning by using ever in questions, or never in negative sentences.

Ex:-Have you ever visited Scotland?
-I’ve never been in a plane before.

If you give the date, year, or time when something happened, you must use the simple past, not the present perfect.

Ex:-I spoke to him yesterday. NOT I have spoken to him yesterday.
-They arrived in the US last week. NOT They have arrived in the US last week.

THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
You make the present perfect progressive by using have been/has been, followed by the main verb with an –ing ending, for example I have been living, she has been studying. The present perfect progressive has very similar meanings to the present perfect, but draws attention to the period of time during which the action has taken place.

The present perfect progressive is used in the following ways:
1. You use the present perfect progressive to talk about something which has continued to happen for a period of time in the past, and which may still be happening now.

Ex:-How long have you been learning English?
-We’ve been expecting them to arrive since last Thursday.
2. You use the present progressive to talk about something which has been taking place recently and which affects the situation now.

Ex:-“You look tired.” “I’ve been working really hard.”
-It’s been raining all week, so the ground’s very wet.
-Don’t say ‘I’ve been knowing John for a long time’. Say I have known John for a long time. See Talking about the past for a list of these verbs.

THE PAST PERFECT
If you want to talk about a past action which took place before another past action, you can use had, followed by the past participle of the main verb.

Ex:-After the visitors had left, we watched TV.
-They told me that the taxi had already arrived

You can also use the past perfect in a ‘progressive’ form by using had been, and putting it in front of a main verb with an –ing ending.

Ex:-We had only been driving for an hour when the car ran out of petrol.

Using the right time phrases with the past tense

If you use words or phrases about time with the simple past, they must have a meaning which shows there has been a space between the time when the action or event happened and the time when you are talking or writing about it.

Ex:-I saw John yesterday/a week ago/last Tuesday.

If you use words or phrases about time with the present perfect, they must have a meaning which shows that the action has continued up to the present, and may still going on.

Ex:-I haven’t seen John since Monday/so far/yet.
-Don’t say ‘I’ve seen him a week ago’ or ‘I didn’t see John since Monday’.

USED TO
You use used to when you want to say that something happened in the past over a period of time, but it no longer happens now. It is found only in the past tense. You use used to with the basic form of the main verb, for example used to smoke, used to live, used to be.
Ex:-I used to play football a lot when I was at school.
-She used to smoke 40 cigarettes a day.
-The club used to be very fashionable.
-They used to live in Los Angeles.

In negatives, you say didn’t use to, or used not to.

Ex:-I didn’t use to like spicy food. OR I used not to like spicy food.

In questions, you say did (you/she/John etc) use to ... ?

Ex:-Did you use to smoke?
-What did she use to call him?

READ MORE - Talking about the past

Talking about the present

English has two main ways of talking about present time: the simple present and the present progressive.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT
You make the simple present by using the verb in its basic form. You add –s or –es to the verb in the third person singular.

The simple present is used in the following ways:
1. You use the simple present to talk about something which is happening now, and which will continue to happen in the future. You often use the simple present in this meaning to talk about things that are true about your life, for example where you live, your job, or the kinds of things you like.

Ex:-Martin lives in Canada.
-I work in a hospital.
-“What kind of music do you like?” “I like all kinds of pop music.”

2. You use the simple present when you talk about something which happens again and again, or when you say that something happens regularly at a particular time. Use words such as always, often, sometimes, occasionally, and never, or phrases such as on Tuesdays or every day with the simple present in this meaning.

Ex:-They often go out to restaurants.
-I travel to London twice a month.
-He gets up at 6 o’clock.
-She goes to church every Sunday.

3. You use the simple present to talk about something which stays the same for ever – such as a scientific fact.

ex:-Oil floats on water.
-Two and two make four.

4. You can use the simple present when you are describing what is happening at the exact moment when you are speaking. The simple present is used like this, for example, in sports commentaries.

Ex:-Shearer gets the ball from Gascoigne. He shoots – and scores!

For descriptions of actions that are happening now, you usually use the present
progressive (see below) rather than the simple present. For example:
“What are you doing?” “I’m making a poster.”NOT “What do you do?” “I make a poster.”

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
You make the present progressive by using a form of the verb be in the present tense, followed by the main verb with an –ing ending, for example l am waiting, she is coming.

The present progressive is used in the following ways:

1. You use the present progressive to talk about something which is happening now at the time you are speaking or writing. You often use this meaning with words and phrases that express present time, such as now, at the moment, and currently.

Ex:-“What’s Bob doing?” “He’s watching television.”
-It’s raining again.
-I’m looking for my glasses.

2. You use the present progressive to say that something is happening now, but will only continue for a limited period of time. Compare these pairs of sentences:

Ex:-We live in France. (=France is our permanent home)
-We’re living in France. (=we are living there for a limited period of time)
-He cooks his own meals. (=he always does it)
-He’s cooking his own meals. (=he does not usually do it)

If you want to talk about the subjects you are studying at school or university, you usually use the present progressive.

Ex:-She’s studying law at Harvard. NOT She studies law at Harvard.
-I’m studying English. NOT I study English.

Verbs that cannot be used in the progressive
Verbs which express a situation or state, rather than describing a definite action, are not usually used in the progressive. Do not use the progressive with the following verbs:

_be__________________have________________see

_believe_____________like________________agree

_know________________love________________disagree

_recognize___________hate________________mean

_remember____________prefer______________need

_understand__________want________________deserve

_wish________________belong

I know the answer. NOT I am knowing the answer.

She understands me. NOT She is understanding me.

READ MORE - Talking about the present

Verbs: intransitive and transitive

Most verbs in English belong to either of two types; intransitive verbs or transitive verbs.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb does not have an object. You can use it without having to add any more words to the sentence. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:

Ex:-Something’s happening.
-I’ll wait.
-It doesn’t matter.

You can add other words to these sentences in order to show meanings such as time, place, or manner, but these words do not have to be there for the sentence to make sense.

Ex:-Something’s happening in the street.
-I’ll wait for a few minutes.
-It doesn’t matter at all.

Other intransitive verbs include appear, come, go, smile, lie, and rise.
Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive.

Don’t say ‘it was happened’ or ‘they were died’. Say it happened or they died.

TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb must have an object. Without the object, the sentence does not make sense. The object of the verb is usually a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun. Here are some examples of transitive verbs:

Ex:-She bought that dress in Tokyo.
-Did you find the key?
-I really like him.

Sometimes the object is a clause which begins + (that).

Ex:-I wish she would stop smoking.

Sometimes the object is a whole sentence.

Ex:-“It’s time to go home,” he said.

Other transitive verbs include make, use, need, thank, enjoy, keep, and carry.

VERBS THAT CAN BE TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE
Several verbs can be used in a transitive or intransitive way. Here are some examples of verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

Ex:-There’s no need to shout. [intransitive]
-Someone shouted my name. [transitive]
-Where do you want to meet? [intransitive]
-I’ll meet you outside the school. [transitive]
-I’m sorry. I don’t understand. [intransitive]
-She didn’t understand his explanation. [transitive]

The intransitive uses are very similar to the transitive ones, except that the object been left out.

OTHER VERBS
Some verbs can be followed by an adjective or adjective phrase. Here are some examples of these verbs:

Ex:-You seem tired.
-It all sounds very interesting.
-Was he angry?

READ MORE - Verbs: intransitive and transitive

Statements and questions

STATEMENTS
A ‘statement’ is a sentence which gives information. If you make a statement, you usually give the sentence a subject, and this must go in front of the verb.

EX:-The children are playing in the garden.

NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
Negative statements are made in two main ways:
1. If the statement contains an auxiliary verb, such as is or have, or the main verb is be, you usually add not or its contracted form n’t.

Ex:-She is not leaving. OR She isn’t leaving.

- Am and may do not allow n’t. Will, shall, and can have special contracted forms: won’t, shan’t, can’t.
- The same rules apply when you make a question negative.

Ex:-Are they in the garden? Aren’t they in the garden?
-WiII he get the job? Won’t he get the job?

2. If the statement has no auxiliary verb, you need to make the negative using a form of do + not/n’t. Make sure that the main verb is in its basic form.



Ex:-She likes swimming. She doesn’t like swimming. NOT She doesn’t likes swimming.
-I saw a ship. I didn’t see a ship. NOT-I didn’t saw a ship.

QUESTIONS
Questions are sentences which ask for information. They fall into three main types, depending on the kind of reply they expect.

‘Yes–no questions’ expect a simple yes or no reply (or a word or phrase which can be used instead of yes or no). In these cases, you put the subject after an auxiliary or after the main verb be.

Ex:-Will Jane resign? (Possible answers: yes, no, I don’t know, probably, maybe etc)
-Are they ready?
-Does Dave know about this?

‘Wh– questions’ begin with a question word, such as what, why, where, or how. This kind of question can have a wide range of different replies. The answer may be a full sentence, or one which leaves out the words that you can guess from knowing the question. Here too, you need to put the subject after an auxiliary or be, unless the question word is the subject.

Ex:-Where are you going? (Possible answers: I’m going to work, downstairs, to the library etc)
-What did she say?
-Who found the money?

‘Alternative questions’ give the listener a choice of two possible replies, both of which are mentioned in the question. The two possibilities are connected by the word or. Once again, you must change the order of subject and verb.

Ex:-Will you travel by train or by boat? (Possible answers: by train, by boat, I don’t know etc)

Tag questions
You can change a statement into a question by adding a ‘tag question’ at the end of it. When you use a tag question, you are asking the listener to agree with the statement you have just made. If the statement is positive, you expect the answer yes. If it is negative, you expect the answer no.

A tag question is a type of ‘yes–no question’, and consists of a personal pronoun after an auxiliary or the main verb be. You use the same personal pronoun (she, they etc) and tense of the verb as in the statement to which the tag question is joined. In the most common kind of tag question, you change from positive to negative, or from negative to positive.

Ex:-She’s outside, isn’t she? (Expected answer: yes)
-They were ready, weren’t they? (Expected answer: yes)
-You aren’t going, are you? (Expected answer: no)
-It isn’t difficult, is it? (Expected answer: no)

Questions which are not questions
You can also use a sentence which looks like a question, but it is one where you are not actually expecting any reply. Because these sentences are halfway between a question and an exclamation, you will find them sometimes written with a question–mark and sometimes with an exclamation–mark.

In some cases, you already know the answer or you are asking your listener to agree with you. These sentences are called ‘exclamatory questions’.

Ex:-Hasn’t she grown!
-Wasn’t the book marvellous?

In other cases, no answer is possible. (Of course your listener may still give you an answer, whether you like it or not!) These sentences are used when you want to express a strong feeling about something. They are called ‘rhetorical questions’.

Ex:-Doesn’t everyone know that the whole thing is impossible?

Polite questions
When using a question to make a request, you can make it sound more polite by using please and by using phrases such as could I...? or may I...? For more information about this kind of question, go to REQUESTS in the COMMUNICATION section.

READ MORE - Statements and questions